Before the morning rush begins, the sound of praise and worship fills the Neoplan bus station in Ghana’s capital, Accra, as a group of Christians gather to prepare to evangelise on vehicles taking travellers across the country.
Amid drumming and dancing, Boateng Bismark James leads 13 worshippers, nine men and four women, in prayer for drivers and passengers travelling to destinations across Ghana.
Ghana is a predominantly Christian country where preaching on public transport is widespread.
On long-distance buses, pastors can often be seen – and heard – preaching the gospel.
The faithful sometimes offer money to the preachers to support their endeavours.
But a new law means this familiar practice could be coming to an end.
Anyone found preaching in public service vehicles faces up to eight months in prison, a fine of up to $52 (£39) or both.
The new regulation, passed by parliament in May, and which has started to be enforced in recent weeks, targets preaching and hawking on vehicles while they are in motion, classifying both as a nuisance and citing the safety and comfort of passengers.
Boateng, a 61-year-old pastor at Gospel Light church, has been preaching on commercial vehicles leaving Neoplan station since 2023.
“I preach on commercial vehicles because not everyone is able to go to church on Sunday. There are a lot of passengers who need our message of salvation to repent from their sins. We even heal the sick on some buses,” he told the BBC in Twi, a local language.
Wearing a clerical collared shirt, Boateng moves through rows of buses loading passengers before boarding one bound for Kumasi, Ghana’s second-largest city.
We speak to him before the bus departs to avoid breaking the law.
Some travellers listen closely as he delivers his message. Others try to ignore him, browsing their phones, making calls or chatting among themselves.
“Some passengers are very happy with my message. Some even say they have never heard the message in church, but through my preaching they now know it is in the Bible,” he says.
The new rules have divided opinion.
Critics say preaching on moving vehicles is a nuisance and a safety risk, as it could distract the driver, while supporters argue that evangelism is a Christian duty and should be protected under the freedom of religious worship.
One woman in her early 30s, who wishes to be identified as Chery Lokko, says she prefers to travel in peace.
”I don’t like it because they are a nuisance. Some of them spit saliva on you unconsciously, especially if you are seated not far from them, and they are a nuisance in terms of noise and saliva. I like my peace whenever I’m on public transport.”
In one video widely shared on social media recently, a passenger on a minibus is seen angrily confronting a pastor attempting to board.
“Get down, I say get down,” he shouts.
But in this devout country, ranked among the most religious in the world, others say evangelism on public transport is an important way of reaching people who may not attend church.
Bernice Nartey, a passenger travelling to Kumasi, says pastors should be allowed to preach, but only with passengers’ consent.
“The preaching sometimes helps people to repent. For instance, if someone is going through a stressful situation, the message of the pastor can give the person renewed hope,” she says.
Boateng says he was shaken by the regulation and wants religious preachers to be given an exemption.
“We are very worried, because most pastors here depend on preaching to take care of their families through the monetary gifts offered by passengers,” he says.
“The government should allow us to preach on the buses and alight when it is exiting Accra,” he adds.
For Boateng, preaching is not only a religious calling but also an important source of income.
“I have been able to take care of my children’s education. My last-born just completed university, and half of the financial support came from money I got from preaching.”
Getty ImagesGhana’s constitution guarantees freedom of religion, although those rights are subject to considerations including public safety.
Preaching on commercial buses was first prohibited in Ghana in 2012, with offenders facing up to 30 days in prison.
But enforcement was weak and so the practice remained common, particularly on buses. The new law beefs up the penalties for those that flout the ban.
Preachers using megaphones can also often be seen and heard at Ghana’s lorry parks and markets but they are not affected by the ban.
The Christian Council of Ghana did not respond to the BBC’s request for a comment but Rev Enoch Paul Hayes, a senior pastor at one of the biggest churches in Ghana, the International Central Gospel Church, tells the BBC he does not think the new rules infringe on religious freedom.
He urges his fellow pastors not to break the law, saying they should find other ways of spreading their message.
“There is social media as an alternative outlet, where the same message can reach thousands of people,” he says.
For Boateng and other bus preachers, the new rules create a difficult choice between adapting their ministry, giving up an important source of income, or risking falling foul of the law.
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